Law of Natural Justice - Judicial Review & Writs

by D.P. Mittal

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Chapter 1—Introduction

1.1 Constitution is the supreme law	1
1.2 Law – Meaning and concept	1
1.3 Law – Functions	2
1.4 Sources of law	3
1.5 Law cannot stand still	4
1.6 Doctrine of laissez faire yielding to welfare state	6
1.7 Law-Recent trends	7
1.8 Public and private law	7
1.8.1 Public functions	8
1.8.2 Public authority	9
1.8.3 Public authority – Exercise of power informed by reason and guided by public interest	10
1.8.4 Public duty- Nolan seven principles	11
1.8.5 Public duty performance	12
1.8.6 Public servant – tortuous acts	12
1.9 Administration of law governed by fundamental policy of law	13
1.10 Administrative law	13
1.11 Administrative procedure to be fair, just and reasonable	16

Chapter 2—Rule of Law

2.1 Introduction	17
2.2 Concept and meaning	18
2.3 Dicey Three Principles	19
2.3.1 Supremacy of Law	20
2.3.2 Equality before Law	21
2.3.3 Predominance of Legal spirit	22
2.4 Rule of law - Differently described	23
2.4.1 Rule according to law	24
2.4.2 Rule under the law	24
2.4.3 Rule according to higher law	24
2.4.4 Higher law linked to principle of justice	25
2.5 Rule of law- Indian Constitution	25
2.6 Rule of law - Characteristics	28
2.6.1 Law – written, well defined and precise principles	28
2.6.2 Regularity, predictability and certainty	29
2.6.3 Rule of law and ex post facto Law	31
2.6.4 Procedural safeguards	31
2.6.5 Rule of law - absence of arbitrary power	32

Chapter 3—Judicial and Administrative Functions of the State

3.1 Introduction	38
3.2 Legislative, executive and the judicial functions of the State	38
3.3 Legislature power to make law is not absolute	40
3.4 Executive power is not absolute	40
3.5 Executive functions of the State	41
3.6 Administration of law	41
3.7 Administrative law - relationship between government and the people	41
3.7.1 Administrative law- Evolution	42
3.7.2 Administrative law - Sources	43
3.8 Administrative law - Scope	44
3.9 Administrative law and principle of governance	45
3.9.1 Delegation of powers	45
3.9.2 Procedural safeguards	46
3.9.3 Natural justice	47
3.9.4 Judicial review	47
3.9.5 Tort liability	48
3.10 Judicial act	48
3.10.1 Quasi-judicial act	48
3.10.2 Judicial, quasi-judicial and administrative acts	50
3.11 Judicial decisions made according to law	51
3.12 Administration of justice is the State function - Courts	52
3.13 Judicial power divided between courts and tribunals	53
3.14 Court – meaning	54
3.14.1 Transfer of judicial functions	56
3.14.2 Court - Tests	58
3.15 Tribunal – meaning	59
3.15.1 Tribunal power and judicial power – Distinction	62
3.15.2 Administrative Tribunal and quasi – judicial Tribunal	62
3.15.3 Tribunal is not a court	65
3.15.4 Trapping of court	66
3.15.5 Tribunal members are not judges holding judicial office	70
3.16 Tribunal - Evidence Act not applicable	71
3.16.1 Tribunal not bound by Code of Civil Procedure	72
3.16.2 Res – judicata – not applicable	73
3.16.3 Estoppel not applicable	73
3.16.4 Power of a civil Court- Circumstances	74
3.16.5 Issuing Commission	75
3.17 Tribunal set up under different Acts- not court	76
3.17.1 Custom Officer - not a court	76
3.17.2 Income-tax officer – not a court	76
3.17.3 Settlement Commission – Not a court	77
3.17.4 Revenue Officer- not a court	77
3.17.5 Sales tax Officer – not a court	78
3.17.6 Commission of Inquiry – Not a court	78
3.17.7 National Consumer Disputes Redressel Commission – not a court	78
3.17.8 Lokayukt is not a court	79
3.17.9 Labour Courts	79

Chapter 4—Judicial Review - General Principles

4.1 Introduction	80
4.1A Judicially reviewable decisions	80
4.1B Decision or action- Adjudicative disposition	82
4.2 Judicial review – meaning and concept	82
4.2.1 According to Law	83
4.3 Judicial review integral part of the Constitution	84
4.4 Judicial review and justiciability – distinction	86
4.5 Judicial review and appeal	86
4.6 Judicial decision not subject to judicial review	89
4.7 Judicial review- purpose	89
4.8 Judicial review- Functions	90
4.9 Judicial review- Scope	92
4.10 Sovereign and some other certain acts outside the scope of Judicial review	94
4.10.1 Policy decision of Government	95
4.10.2 Legislative policy	96
4.10.3 Administrative policy	98
4.10.4 Economic policy	100
4.10.5 Policy for administration and decision of State	102
4.10.6 Political questions outside judicial review	103
4.10.7 Change of policy defeating legitimate expectation	104
4.10.8 Government guidelines to safeguard public interest	105
4.10.9A Public interest	106
4.10.9B Public purpose	107
4.11 Judicial review - State actions if they relate to public law domain	108
4.11.1 Judicial review – In the field of contractual powers by Government bodies	108
4.12 Judicial review- Judicial activism	109
4.13 Judicial review – Limitation	111
4.13.1 Judicial review - Not to restrain authorities from exercising statutory powers	111
4.13.2 Judicial restraint	111
4.13.3 Judicial restraint means judicial respect	115
4.14 Judicial Review -Broad principles	115

Chapter 5—Jurisdiction-Lack of, Nullity, Illegality Irregularity

5.1 Introduction	118
5.2 Jurisdiction – meaning	118
5.2.1 Jurisdiction -want, excess or abuse of	120
5.3 Nullity, illegality and irregularity are the various consequences of error	121
5.4 Nullity, meaning of	122
5.4.1 Nullity, when occurs	122
5.4.2 Nullity of the proceeding from the stage when illegality supervened	122
5.5 Illegality, meaning of	124
5.5.1 Illegality, when occurs	124
5.6 Irregularity, meaning of	125
5.6.1 Irregularity, when occurs	125
5.7 Illegality and irregularity, distinction	125
5.8 Nullity and irregularity, distinction	125
5.9 Jurisdiction- Inherent, exercise and invoking of	126
5.10 Inherent lack of jurisdiction	127
5.10.1 Jurisdiction – Inherent lack of, objection	130
5.11 Jurisdiction – Ultra vires statute	130
5.12 Jurisdiction – Improper constitution of Tribunal	130
5.13 Jurisdiction - Subject-matter	130
5.14 Jurisdiction - Lack of During the course of proceedings	131
5.15 Jurisdictional facts and conditions first determined before determining the actual issue	132
5.15.1 Finding of fact reviewed if such findings are necessary for assumption of jurisdiction	132
5.16 Jurisdiction – Error of jurisdiction and error in the exercise	132
5.16.1 Erroneous decision on limitation or res judicata is a jurisdictional error and not an error within jurisdiction	133
5.16.2 An order with jurisdiction exercised wrongly is not a nullity, and thus operative till corrected	134
5.17 Jurisdiction - An order without, is a nullity	134
5.18 A null and void order is operative till it is declared void	135
5.19 Jurisdiction - Not affected by repeal or amendment of a provision	136
5.20 Nullity, illegality and irregularity Income-tax Act, 1961	137
5.21 Illegality, irrationality and procedural impropriety [Council of Civil Service Unions]	138
5.22 Illegality – Decision contravening or exceeding the terms of the power	140
5.23 According to law	142
5.23.1 Error of law	144
5.24 Flagrant violation of natural justice	145
5.25 Perversity	146
5.26 Irrationality	147
5.26.1 Rationality v. Reasonableness	150
5.26.2 Reason – foundation of all laws	151
5.26.3 Irrationality – unreasonableness (Wednesbury principle)	152
5.26.4 4Irrationality - Legal unreasonableness (beyond Wednesbury unreasonableness)	154
5.26.5 Arbitrary or capricious equivalent to Wednesbury unreasonableness	156
5.26.6 Wednesbury test – not a satisfactory test	156
5.26.7 Reasonableness other than Wednesbury principles	158
5.26.8 Reasonableness also constitutional requirement	159
5.27 Procedural Impropriety	159
5.27.1 Fairness – doctrine of	160
5.27.2 Fair play in action	161
5.27.3 Failure to observe procedural rules	162
5.26.4 Power to do a thing in a certain way must be done in that way	163
5.27.5 What cannot be done directly cannot be done indirectly	163
5.27.6 When law commands a thing to be done, it authorizes the performance of whatever necessary for executing the command	164
5.27.7 Duty to perform- reasonable time	164

Chapter 6—Judicial Review - Judicial Control of Administrative Discretion

6.1 Introduction	165
6.2 Judicial review - A mode for the court to exercise control on proper exercise of discretionary powers	166
6.3 Judicial review - Directed against the decision-making process and not against the decision	167
6.4 Discretion – some concepts	168
6.4.1 Executive functions that are not ministerial are discretionary	168
6.5 Discretion – meaning	169
6.6 Discretion coupled with duty	171
6.7 Discretion-capable of abuse and not immune from judicial reviewability	172
6.8 Judicial review - Scope and parameters of	174
6.8.1 Judicial review - Courts do not countenance arbitrary power and unfettered discretion	175
6.9 Judicial review - Failure to exercise discretion	175
6.10 Judicial review – Excess or abuse of discretionary power	176
6.10.1 Mala fide use of power	177
6.10.1A ‘Malice in law’/malice in fact	178
6.10.1B Mala fide - meaning	178
6.10.1C Mala fide charge must be proved	179
6.10.1D Fraudulent exercise of power - inference	180
6.11 Exercise of discretion - grounds for challenge of	181
6.12 Misuse in bad faith	181
6.13 Excess or abuse of power – Overstepping limits or defeating the provisions of the Act	182
6.13.1 Breach of representation may not amount to abuse of power	183
6.14 Excess or abuse of power- Situations giving rise to	183
6.14.1 Violation of the statutory provisions	183
6.14.2 Authority must not act unfairly or unreasonably, but act according to law	186
6.15 Summing up	187

Chapter 7—Natural Justice - Concept and Features

7.1 Natural justice- A concept	189
7.2 Participatory justice	191
7.3 Not justice natural among men	191
7.4 In aid of Legal justice	192
7.5 Not statutory rules	192
7.6 ‘Natural justice’ not capable of static and precise definition	193
7.7 Not imprisoned in the straight-jacket or a cast-iron formula	194
7.8 Not embodied rules	195
7.9 Operates in area not covered by law validly made	196
7.10 Natural justice - Aims	198
7.10.1 Essence	199
7.10.2 Natural justice - ensures fairness of procedure	200
7.11 Natural justice- Ingredients	200
7.12 Features	201
7.13 Limitations	202
7.14 Non-application to legislative act	202
7.15 Exceptions	203
7.16 Presumptive implications - Implicit in every decision making function	204
7.17 Branch of public law	205
7.18 Guiding factor in administrative law	206
7.19 Administrative law-Quasi-judicial and administrative enquiries	206

Chapter 8 Natural Justice - Fair play and Fair hearing

8.1 What is natural justice	208
8.2 Natural justice means fairness	209
8.3 What constitutes fairness	210
8.4 What fairness achieves	211
8.5 Fair play and fair hearing	211
8.5.1 Fair trial	212
8.6 Fair play means acting fairly	213
8.6.1 Duty to act fairly- A constitutional requirement	215
8.7 Fair hearing-Procedural fairness	216
8.7.1 Fair hearing – Essentials	217
8.8 Fairness in decision making	218
8.8.1 Fairness all stages of decision – making	218
8.9 Fair hearing necessary even if something obvious	220
8.9.1 Useless formality theory	220
8.10 Fair hearing denied at initial stage not cured at appellate stage	225
8.11 Fair hearing – Departmental proceedings	225
8.11.1 Principles - Summing up	227

Chapter 9—Audi Alteram Partem

9.1 Introduction	230
9.2 Audi alterampaterm-Hear the other side	230
9.3 Various aspects	233
9.4 Compliance- categories	234
9.5 Injects justice into law	234
9.6 Constitutionally protected right	235
9.7 Two facets -intrinsic and institutional (constitutional)	237
9.8 Right of hearing, even if not provided	238
9.9 Exception - No hearing	239
9.9.1 Useless formality theory	243
9.10 Post decisional hearing	243
9.11 Summary judgment	245
9.12 audi alteram partem - Principles	245
9.13 Notice	246
9.13.1 Tentative and prima facie conclusions	248
9.13.2 Premeditation	248
9.13.3 Issued even if no answer possible	248
9.13.4 Essential requirements	249
9.13.5 Precise and unambiguous	249
9.13.6 Effective and reasonable	250
9.14 Adequate notice	250
9.14.1 Adequate notice - requirements	250
9.15 Appropriate opportunity	251
9.15.1 Opportunity real and effective	253
9.15.2 Reasonable opportunity	254
9.15.3 Reasonable opportunity -Characteristics	255
9.15.4 Examination and cross examination	255
9.15.4A Cross examination not allowed if situation demands	256
9.15.4B Cross-examination not allowed when facts not in dispute or no prejudice caused	256
9.15.4C Adjournment -Failure to accede amounts to denial of natural justice	257
9.15.4D Unfairness from mistake of advisers is not mistake of the decision – making authority	258
9.15.4E Fair consideration of the explanation	259
9.16 Personal (oral) hearing	259
9.17 Audi alteram partem - effect of non observance	260
9.17.1 Audi alteram partem non observance - order void/voidable	260
9.17.2 Violation of the principle as such or violation of its facet	262
9.17.3 Flagrant violation results in nullity	262

Chapter 10—Bias - Nemo Debet Esse Judex in Propria Causa

10.1 Introduction	264
10.2 Fair hearing by an impartial tribunal – A right	264
10.3 ‘nemojudex in causasua’	265
10.3.1 Three maxims	266
10.3.2 Judge - Free from bias	266
10.4 Bias	266
10.4.1 Total absence of preconception in judge mind not possible	267
10.4.2 Relationship, interest or attitude	267
10.4.3 Predates decision	268
10.4.4 Bias and unfairness	268
10.4.5 Kinds	268
10.4.6 Pecuniary interest and prejudice- Distinction	269
10.4.7 Order vitiated	270
10.5 No man shall be a judge in his own cause	271
10.5.1 Interest	272
10.5.2 Automatic disqualification	272
10.5.3 Amount of interest not relevant	273
10.5.4 Shareholder	273
10.5.5 De-minimis exception	274
10.5.6 Length of time	275
10.5.7 Prejudice	276
10.5.8 Promotion of a cause	277
10.5.9 Pinochet Ugarte case	278
10.6 Justice not only be done, but manifestly seen to be done	280
10.6.1 Reasonable apprehension	282
10.6.2 Real likelihood of bias – Test	283
10.6.3 Real danger test- English courts	285
10.6.4 Australian courts	287
10.6.5 South African court	288
10.6.6 Nature of Tribunal	289
10.6.7 Reasonable man standard	290
10.6.8 Hypothetical reasonable man	293
10.6.9 Bias not inferred merely on suspicion	293
10.6.10Suspicion and prejudgment	296
10.7 Existence of bias – Situations	297
10.8 Duty to disclosure	299
10.9 Waiver	300
10.10 Doctrine of necessity	302
10.11 Bias - Opinion or reports	303

Chapter 11—Speaking Order

11.1 Introduction	304
11.2 Speaking order	304
11.2.1 easons - ensures transparency and fairness in decision making	305
11.3 Speaking order - An ingredient of audi alteram partem	306
11.4 Order of administrative or quasi-judicial authority must speak	306
11.5 Requisites of decisions	307
11.6 Duty to record reasons	308
11.6.1 Implied duty	308
11.6.2 Expressed duty	310
11.6.3 Pervasive duty	310
11.7 Transparency - ensures people knowing how, why and what for the decision taken	310
11.8 Rationale - Failure to give reasons amounts to denial of justice	311
11.9 Speaking order – why necessary	313
11.9.1 Fairness	314
11.9.2 Application of mind	315
11.9.3 Prevents unconscious unfairness	316
11.9.4 Appearance of justice	317
11.9.5 Prevents substitution of reasons	317
11.9.6 Satisfaction to the aggrieved party	317
11.9.7 Gives content and meaning	318
11.9.8 Assistance to Appellate Authority	318
11.10 Reasons to be proper and adequate	321
11.11 Non-recording of reasons- Court Martial cases	322
11.12 Summing up	322

Chapter 12—Legitimate Expectation

12.1 Introduction	324
12.2 Historical development	325
12.3 Concept	326
12.3.1 Meaning	328
12.3.2 Legitimate or reasonable	330
12.3.3 Ingredients	331
12.3.4 Legitimate expectation v. promissory estoppel	332
12.3.5 Scope	333
12.3.6 Consequences	334
12.3.7 Legitimacy	335
12.3.8 Nature of representation	336
12.3.9 Representation in general terms	336
12.3.10 Public interest overrides	336
12.3.11 Change of policy and Wednesbury principle	337
12.3.12 Who can invoke	338
12.3.13 When invoked	338
12.3.14 Mere claim cannot ipso facto give a right	339
12.4 Two aspects	340
12.4.1 Substantive legitimate expectation	341
12.4.2 Procedural legitimate expectation	342
12.4.2A Navjoti’s case	343
12.4.2B Food Corporation’s case	343
12.4.2C GCHQ’s case	344
12.5 Right of Fair hearing	344
12.5.1 Duty of authorities to act fairly	344
12.5.2 Non-arbitrariness (Article 14)	345
12.5.3 Full disclosure	346
12.6 Judicial review	346
12.6.1 Judicial review and standing	348

Chapter 13—Promissory Estoppel

13.1 Introduction	350
13.2 Aims to secure justice and equity	350
13.3 Historical development - England	351
13.4 Historical development - India	356
13.5 Estoppel	360
13.6 Equitable estoppel	361
13.7 Promissory estoppel	361
13.7.1 Scope	362
13.7.2 Legislature, Government or public authority - not bound	367
13.7.3 Substantive law	369
13.7.4 Qualifications	369
13.7.5 Limitations	369
13.7.6 Limitation – Public law	370
13.8 Ingredients	371
13.9 Promise for the future (promissory statement)	371
13.9.1 Not a contract	372
13.10 Altering position	372
13.10.1 Meaning	372
13.10.2 Elasticity	373
13.10.3 Detriment	373
13.10.4 Detriment not required to be proved	374
13.10.5 Resilience depends on equity	374
13.11 Legal right	374
13.12A Legal relationship	375
13.13 Promissory estoppel and Service laws	376

Chapter 14—Burden of Proof

14.1 Introduction	377
14.2 Burden of proof-meaning	377
14.3 Evidence	377
14.3.1 Evidence - Kinds of	378
14.3.2 Evidence - Statement of a witness	378
14.3.3 Evidence - Circumstantial	379
14.3.4 Evidence - Hearsay	379
14.3.5 Evidence - Evaluation	379
14.4 Fact	381
14.5 Proof	381
14.5A Proof of allegation	382
14.6 Presumption - Meaning of	382
14.7 Presumption - A rule of evidence	382
14.7.1 Presumption - Kinds of	383
14.8 Burden of proof - Aspects	383
14.9 Burden of proof - As a matter of law	383
14.10 Presumption of fact	383
14.11 Presumption of law	384
14.11.1 Presumption - Rebuttable	384
14.11.2 Presumption - Irrebuttable (conclusive proof)	385
14.12 Burden of proof in civil cases - Preponderance of probabilities	385
14.13 Burden of proof - Mala fide acts	386
14.14 Burden of proof - Income-tax Act	390

Chapter 15—Review and Rectification

15.1 Introduction	392
15.2 Review	392
15.2.1 Two distinct characteristics	393
15.3 Procedural review	393
15.4 Review under Civil Procedure Code	394
15.4.1 Scope	395
15.4.2 ‘actus curiae neminem gravabit’	395
15.4.3 Clerical, arithmetical mistakes, accidental slips	396
15.4.4 Accidental slip or omission	397
15.4.5 Illustrations	397
15.5 Error apparent from record	398
15.5.1 Mistake	398
15.5.2 Apparent	399
15.5.3 Record	400
15.6 Power mandatory	401
15.7 ex debito justitiae	401
15.8 Recalling order	402
15.8.1 Inherent lack of jurisdiction	404
15.8.2 Fraud	404
15.8.2A Fraud in public law (administrative law)	405
15.8.3 Non service of notice	405

Chapter 16—Revision

16.1 Introduction	408
16.2 Review and Revision- distinction	408
16.3 Revision and appeal - Distinction	408
16.4 Revisional power	409
16.5 Parameters	410
16.5.1 According to law	412
16.5.2 Legality, regularity, propriety	413
16.6 Revision under the Income-tax Act	413

Chapter 17—Appeal

17.1 Introduction	415
17.2 Appeal – meaning	415
17.2.1 Different from suit	417
17.2.2 Appeal preferring	418
17.2.3 Effective appeal	418
17.2.4 Defective appeal	419
17.2.5 Subject of appeal	419
17.2.6 In the nature of rehearing	419
17.2.7 Time limit	420
17.2.8 Out of time	420
17.2.9 Continuation of original proceedings	421
17.3 Appeal from any order	422
17.3.1 Order	422
17.3.2 Person aggrieved	422
17.3.3 Cross appeal/Cross-objection	423
17.4 Right to appeal	424
17.4.1 Liberal construction	426
17.4.2 Fulfilment of conditions	427
17.4.3 Substantive right	427
17.4.4 Amending Act does not affect	429
17.4.5 Repealing Act does not affect	430
17.4.6 Change of forum	431
17.4.7 Period of limitation	432
17.5 First appeal	432
17.5.1 Grounds urged and argued	433
17.5.2 Judgment- requirements	433
17.5.3 Powers of appellate court	434
17.5.4 Time period for disposal	435
17.5.5 Assistance from lower jurisdiction	436
17.6 Second Appeal	436
17.6.1 Finding	438
17.6.2 Question of fact	439
17.6.3 Question of law	440
17.6.4 Question of fact or question of law	440
17.6.5 Perverse finding	441
17.6.6 Question of fact becomes aquestion of law	442
17.6.7 Judicial review	444
17.6.8 Substantial question of law	445
17.6.8A Tests	445
17.6.8B Precedent condition for admission	446
17.6.9 Additional evidence	447
17.7 Appeal to Supreme Court	449
17.7.1 Not ordinary appeal	450
17.7.2 Power discretionary	451
17.7.3 Exercise of jurisdiction - Two stages	452
17.7.4 Dismissal does not mean approval of decision appealed against	452
17.7.5 Dismissal of SLP – No merger	453
17.8 Doctrine of merger	455
17.8.1 Conditions of merger	456
17.8.2 Review jurisdiction and merger	457
17.8.3 Exception	458
17.8.4 What merges – the operative part	459
17.8.5 Limitations	460

Chapter 18—Writs

18.1 Introduction	463
18.2 Writs - High Court power	463
18.3 Historical background	465
18.4 Writ - meaning	467
18.5 Writs and Judicial review	467
18.6 Writs Public law remedy	469
18.6.1 Instrumentalities of State	469
18.6.2 Private body discharging public functions	470
18.6.3 Contractual matters	471
18.6.4 Writs - Contractual rights/disputes involving constitutional or legal issues	472
18.7 Writs - scope	473
18.7.1 Original (constitutional) jurisdiction	475
18.8 Power of writ and of superintendence	475
18.8.1 Distinction between Articles 226 and 227	476
18.9 Power of superintendence - Article 227	477
18.9.1 Article 227 - Scope	477
18.10 Power of writ - Article 226	480
18.10.1 Nature of duty and not the form of body relevant	481
18.10.2 Any Person or Authority	483
18.11 Writs in the nature of	484
18.12 Limitations	484
18.13 Writs – Kinds	487
18.13.1 Distinguishing features	488
18.13.2 Habeas corpus	488
18.13.3 Quo warrant	489
18.13.4 Prohibition	490

Chapter 19—Writ of Mandamus

19.1 Mandamus - To command and execute	491
19.2 Mandamus – Scope	492
19.2.1 Other writs - Distinction	494
19.3 Mandamus not taken away by finality of order	495
19.4 Mandamus not a substitute for regular trial	490
19.5 Mandamus not applicable to contractual rights	490
19.6.1 Mandamus not appellate jurisdiction	490
19.6.2 Mandamus meant to enforce law and not to correct practice and procedure	496
19.6.3 Mandamus meant not to empower High Court to assume power of statutory authority	496
19.6.4 Mandamus not to enforce a claim of uncertain merit	496
19.6.5 Mandamus not issued on show cause notice	496
19.7 Mandamus - Cannot be denied	497
19.8 Mandamus - Admissibility	497
19.9 Alternative remedies	498
19.9.1 Mandamus - Adequacy and sufficiency of remedies meaning	500
19.9.2 Mandamus - Remedy not adequate and sufficient if appeal is admitted only if amount of tax is deposited	501
19.9.3 Alternative remedy oppressive and onerous	502
19.9.4 Mandamus - Even when efficacious remedy is available	502
19.9.5 Instances	504
19.9.6 Taxation and election cases	504
19.10 Conduct of parties	505
19.11 Laches (inordinate delay)	505
19.12 Mandamus –Subordinate Legislation	507
19.13 Circumstances – summing up	508

Chapter 20—Writs - Certiorari and Prohibition

20.1 Introduction	509
20.2 Historical development	509
20.3 Writ Prohibition	509
20.4 Certiorari-Object	510
20.5 Certiorari - Judicial superintendence, in the nature of revisional jurisdiction	511
20.6 Certiorari - Alternative remedy	511
20.7 Certiorari and Prohibition - Scope	511
20.8 Summing up	515
20.9 Jurisdictional error and want of jurisdiction	516
20.9.1 Patent error	517
20.10 Show cause notice	518
20.11 Certiorari and appeal	519

Chapter 21—Judicial Review and Ousting of Civil Court Jurisdiction

21.1 Introduction	520
21.2 Exclusionary clause - Justification	520
21.3 Exclusion not readily inferred	522
21.4 Tests for intended exclusion - Adequacy and sufficiency of remedies	522
21.5 Principles for exclusion	524
21.6 Limitations	525
21.7 Civil court jurisdiction not completely ousted- order subject to judicial review under article 226 or 227	525

Chapter 22—High Court Inherent Powers

22.1 Introduction	528
22.2 Inherent power - Meaning and necessity	528
22.3 Inherent power - And ex debito justitiae	528
22.4 Inherent power and implied power - Distinction	528
22.5 Inherent and revisional power - Distinction	529
22.6 Inherent power - Scope of	529
22.7 Inherent powers - Restrictions and conditionalities	530
22.8 Power of the High Court under section 151 of the Civil Procedure Code	530
22.9 Inherent power of the court to review its own decision	532
22.10 Inherent power Under section 482 of the Code of Criminal Procedure	532
22.11 Inherent power under section 482 - Scope	532
22.12 Inherent power - Quashing of proceeding to prevent manifest injustice	533
22.13 Inherent power to quash proceeding - If ingredients of offence are absent	533
22.13.1 Inherent power - There is no offence	534
22.13.2 Inherent power - Offence lacking legal evidence	534

Chapter 23—Interpretative Principles

23.1 Introduction	535
23.2 Interpretation of statute, meaning of	535
23.3 Interpretation- General principles	535
23.4 Statute not a divine revelation	537
23.4.1 Ambiguity	537
23.5 Intention of Legislature	537
23.6 Statutory text and intention of the Parliament	538
23.7 Statutory construction is regarded an exercise in legal reasoning	539
23.8 Rules of interpretation	539
23.9 Purposive Interpretation	542
23.9.1 Purposive and literal approach combined	545
23.10 Principle of Interpretation, summing up	546
23.11 Updating construction	547
23.12 Constitutionality of law - Principles	547
23.13 Presumption in favour of constitutionality	549
23.14 Casus omissus and ex visceribus actus	550
23.15 Strict interpretation	551
23.15.1 Taxing statutes	551
23.15.2 Tax avoidance	551
23.15.3 Penal provisions	552
23.15.4 Provision relating to Limitation	553
23.15.5 Exception	553
23.15.6 Legal fictions	554
23.15.7 Deeming provision	554
23.16 Liberal Interpretation	555
23.16.1 Welfare provisions	555
23.16.2 Beneficial provisions	555
23.16.3 Machinery provision	556
23.16.4 Exemption provisions	556
23.16.5 Liberal and strict interpretation	556
23.17 Interpretation - Internal aids	557
23.18 Preamble	557
23.19 Definition	558
23.19.1 Functions of a definition	558
23.19.2 Interpretation clause used if the words ambiguous or equivocal	559
23.19.3 Definition not meant to be exhaustive	559
23.20 Means	559
23.21 Includes	559
23.21.1 “Includes� may also have exhaustive meaning	560
23.22 “Means and includes�	560
23.22.2 “Means� and “includes� - Distinguishing features	561
23.23 Unless the context otherwise requires	561
23.24 Referential definition	562
23.25 Proviso	563
23.25.1 Interpretation of a proviso	563
23.25.2 Provided further	564
23.25.3 Proviso, whether refers to the last or all paras in a series of paragraphs	565
23.26 Explanation	565
23.26.1 Explanation, interpretation	566
23.27 Exception	567
23.28 Legal fiction and deeming provisions	567
23.29 Marginal notes and headings	568
23.30 Setting of the Act	568
23.30.1 Punctuation	568
23.31 Other expressions	569
23.32 Notwithstanding	569
23.33 Subject to	570
23.34 In accordance with	570
23.35 In addition to	570
23.36 In derogation of	570
23.37 In connection with	570
23.38 In (by) writing	570
23.39 In relation to	571
23.40 Pertaining to	571
23.41 Incidental	571
23.42 Incident	572
23.43 In respect of - With respect to	572
23.44 Within	572
23.45 In and within	572
23.46 Namely, or that is to say	572
23.47 Liable	572
23.48 Under the Act	573
23.49 Otherwise	573
23.50 Without prejudice	573
23.51 As the case may be	574
23.52 So far as may be	574
23.53 Similar	574
23.54 Like	574
23.55 Having regard to	574
23.56 Or	575
23.57 “And� and “Or�	575
23.58 At any time	575
23.59 “During� and “In all�	575
23.60 “A�	575
23.61 “An�	575
23.62 “The�	575
23.63 “Any�	575
23.64 Where, when if,	576
23.65 Etc.	576
23.66 After	576
23.67 Hereafter	577
23.68 Mandatory or directory/Meaning	577
23.68.1 Whether a provision is mandatory or directory	577
23.68.2 Link between the broad principle of the statute and object of the particular provision is important	577
23.68.3 Consequences of non-compliance of mandatory and directory provisions	578
23.68.4 “May�-	578
23.68.5 “Shall�	578
23.68.6 “Shall� and “may� interchangeable –	578
23.68.7 Simultaneous use of “may� and “shall�	579
23.68.8 Negative or prohibitive word mandatory	579
23.68.9 Time limit for performance of a duty rarely mandatory	579
23.68.10 Provisions relating to avoidance of public mischief not mandatory	579
23.68.11 Procedural Rule not mandatory	580
23.68.12 Mode of performing a duty has to be mandatorily followed	580
23.68.13 Conditions of a provision should be mandatorily followed	580
23.69 Guidelines	581
23.70 Schedule	581
23.71 External aids	582
23.72 Dictionary	583
23.72.1 Subject and object rules	583
23.72.2 Reference to other Acts	584
23.72.3 Words in popular sense	584
23.72.4 Words – General public	585
23.73 Process of legislation	585
23.73.1 History of legislation	586
23.73.2 Statement of objects and reasons	586
23.73.3 Speech of Minister	586
23.73.4 Parliamentary Materials	587
23.74 Contemporanea expositio (Administrative instructions)	588
23.75 Special law v. General law	590
23.75.1 Special law v. Special law	590

About the Author

D.P. Mittal

D.P. Mittal-D.P. Mittal is an advocate, tax and business law consultant. He has authored about two hundred articles in Indian and foreign magazines and journals and also books on various law subjects; some of them are as follows: Interpretation of Taxing Statutes, Wills, Deeds and Documents; Laws relating to Copyrights, Patents, Trade Marks and GATT; Business and Commercial Laws; Law of Arbitration, ADR and Contract in India; Indian Patents Law; Natural Justice, Judicial Review & Administrative Law; Law of Trade Marks; Law of Information Technology (Cyber Law); Law of Arbitration (2002); Indian Patents Law and Procedure (2002); Trade Marks Passing off and Geographical Indications of Goods - Law and Procedure (2002); Competition Law; Law relating to Sick Industries; Interpretation of Statutes; Law Dictionary

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Law of Natural Justice - Judicial Review & Writs

Publisher: Commercial Law Publishers

Pages: 696

Language: English

ISBN: 9789356032859

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Law of Natural Justice - Judicial Review & Writs

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1—Introduction

Chapter 2—Rule of Law

Chapter 3—Judicial and Administrative Functions of the State

Chapter 4—Judicial Review - General Principles

Chapter 5—Jurisdiction-Lack of, Nullity, Illegality Irregularity

Chapter 6—Judicial Review - Judicial Control of Administrative Discretion

Chapter 7—Natural Justice - Concept and Features

Chapter 8 Natural Justice - Fair play and Fair hearing

Chapter 9—Audi Alteram Partem

Chapter 10—Bias - Nemo Debet Esse Judex in Propria Causa

Chapter 11—Speaking Order

Chapter 12—Legitimate Expectation

Chapter 13—Promissory Estoppel

Chapter 14—Burden of Proof

Chapter 15—Review and Rectification

Chapter 16—Revision

Chapter 17—Appeal

Chapter 18—Writs

Chapter 19—Writ of Mandamus

Chapter 20—Writs - Certiorari and Prohibition

Chapter 21—Judicial Review and Ousting of Civil Court Jurisdiction

Chapter 22—High Court Inherent Powers

Chapter 23—Interpretative Principles

About the Author

D.P. Mittal

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1—Introduction

Chapter 2—Rule of Law

Chapter 3—Judicial and Administrative Functions of the State

Chapter 4—Judicial Review - General Principles

Chapter 5—Jurisdiction-Lack of, Nullity, Illegality Irregularity

Chapter 6—Judicial Review - Judicial Control of Administrative Discretion

Chapter 7—Natural Justice - Concept and Features

Chapter 8 Natural Justice - Fair play and Fair hearing

Chapter 9—Audi Alteram Partem

Chapter 10—Bias - Nemo Debet Esse Judex in Propria Causa

Chapter 11—Speaking Order

Chapter 12—Legitimate Expectation

Chapter 13—Promissory Estoppel

Chapter 14—Burden of Proof

Chapter 15—Review and Rectification

Chapter 16—Revision

Chapter 17—Appeal

Chapter 18—Writs

Chapter 19—Writ of Mandamus

Chapter 20—Writs - Certiorari and Prohibition

Chapter 21—Judicial Review and Ousting of Civil Court Jurisdiction

Chapter 22—High Court Inherent Powers

Chapter 23—Interpretative Principles

About the Author

D.P. Mittal

Have Questions About This Book?

Other books

CA/CMA INTER INCOME TAX QUESTION BANK

GST (IDT) Book - 4th Edition | May, Sept 2026 & Jan 2027 Attempt

AUDIT MCQ BOOK NEW SYLLABUS

Strategic Management (SM) Book May 26 & Sept 26 onwards

AUDIT INSIGHTS BOOK May 26 & Sept 26 onwards

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